School administration is achieved through talk: talk in meetings, talk in random hallway encounters, talk on the telephone, talk to the media, and talk on the grapevine. As Corson (1995) puts it: “All kinds of power are directed, through language”(p.3).
Power permeates the education system; and although some actors are more powerful than others, all have power. School administrators have two types of powers: economic dominance and legal authority. These types of powers are built into the system for administrators. Wise school leaders build their power by working to add to what the system provides them. Many administrators work to establish their component authority, which can be done in several ways. Some people obtain a doctorate for this purpose; another approach is to stay up-to-date in professional reading and work actively in one or more professional organizations. Administrators can also establish their competent authority by clearly pointing out the educational reasons for the decisions they make.
Learning how to make a convincing presentation at a meeting or polishing writing skills in order to be able to draft effective news release can enhance a school leader’s power.
In addition, the zest to gain more knowledge about the community and its population will also enhance power.
Reference
Corson D. (1995). Discursive power in educational organizations: an introduction. Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press.
Sunday, July 22, 2007
Future Role of Technological Literacy in Education
In the article, Toward a vision of the Future Role of Technology in Literacy Education, Labbo exposes how technological innovations play a role in Literacy Education. This article began by introducing the definition of literacy, exploring learning theories and classroom communicative technologies. Finally it provided an explanation of the future development of computer literacy.
This article clarifies that in an era when computer-related communicative literacy abilities are proliferating through all aspects of life in American society and throughout the global market place, it is crucial to explore a vision of the role computer-related literacy should play in defining children’s literacy development in the near future. There is an implication that predominant learning theories are important to consider because they provide insights about underlying instructional frameworks that allows us to understand the nature of literacy instruction. The writer notes that curriculum guides should be guided by the most current and widely-adopted learning theories and if one of the goals of literacy education is to better all students to function as literate beings in society, it is crucial to weigh how well the use of communication technologies present in the class coincides with the use of these tools in the larger society.
In her article, Labbo also portrays how many teachers view their content instructional role as that of a facilitator and guide who provide children with the support and practice that allows them to socially construct knowledge about conventional literacy. The teachers mediate children’s cognitive processing, opportunities, and learned literacy-related skills and strategies through the whole direct instruction, small group instruction, and individual conferences. Labbo makes a point of reference that according to Leu and Kinzer, educators of the 1990s were faced with the enormous task of preparing students to be literate in a future that was unclear and prepare them for a level of computer-related literacy that many educators themselves had not yet grasped.
The conclusion and implications made by this study propose that the paradigm shifts need to occur from an understanding of literacy as totally print-based to literacy as both print and digitally based. It is also implied that curriculum writers may attempt to superimpose a new scheme on an older, traditional developmental scope and sequence. The article clearly concludes that problem with such organizational frameworks is a lack of a research base or an experimental base to support it. Whether we are ready for the paradigm shift about literacy education that is sure to occur, or the societal forces for integrating digital literacy into the local workplace. Popular culture, and global marketplace are up on us. It is up to us to figure out how to best prepare for the inevitable changes that are sweeping the informational internet across our nation.
References
Labbo, L. D. (in press b). What will classroom and schools look like in the next millennium? Reading Research Quarterly.
Labbo, L.D., & Reinking, D. (in press). Negotiating the Multiple Realities of Technology in Literacy Research and Instruction. Reading Research Quarterly.
This article clarifies that in an era when computer-related communicative literacy abilities are proliferating through all aspects of life in American society and throughout the global market place, it is crucial to explore a vision of the role computer-related literacy should play in defining children’s literacy development in the near future. There is an implication that predominant learning theories are important to consider because they provide insights about underlying instructional frameworks that allows us to understand the nature of literacy instruction. The writer notes that curriculum guides should be guided by the most current and widely-adopted learning theories and if one of the goals of literacy education is to better all students to function as literate beings in society, it is crucial to weigh how well the use of communication technologies present in the class coincides with the use of these tools in the larger society.
In her article, Labbo also portrays how many teachers view their content instructional role as that of a facilitator and guide who provide children with the support and practice that allows them to socially construct knowledge about conventional literacy. The teachers mediate children’s cognitive processing, opportunities, and learned literacy-related skills and strategies through the whole direct instruction, small group instruction, and individual conferences. Labbo makes a point of reference that according to Leu and Kinzer, educators of the 1990s were faced with the enormous task of preparing students to be literate in a future that was unclear and prepare them for a level of computer-related literacy that many educators themselves had not yet grasped.
The conclusion and implications made by this study propose that the paradigm shifts need to occur from an understanding of literacy as totally print-based to literacy as both print and digitally based. It is also implied that curriculum writers may attempt to superimpose a new scheme on an older, traditional developmental scope and sequence. The article clearly concludes that problem with such organizational frameworks is a lack of a research base or an experimental base to support it. Whether we are ready for the paradigm shift about literacy education that is sure to occur, or the societal forces for integrating digital literacy into the local workplace. Popular culture, and global marketplace are up on us. It is up to us to figure out how to best prepare for the inevitable changes that are sweeping the informational internet across our nation.
References
Labbo, L. D. (in press b). What will classroom and schools look like in the next millennium? Reading Research Quarterly.
Labbo, L.D., & Reinking, D. (in press). Negotiating the Multiple Realities of Technology in Literacy Research and Instruction. Reading Research Quarterly.
Distance Learning and Digital Library
Distance Learning and the Digital Library
In the article titled, Distance Learning and the Digital Library: Transforming the Library into an Information Center, Roberta Derlin attempts to show a vision of the transformation of the library from a respiratory of printed material to a digital library serving as a complete information center. This article portrays how emphasis is being placed on distance education since the future information centers will be distant learner-centered. Technology has the power of transforming libraries into the digital library of the future. According to Derlin, distance learning continues to proliferate and expand educational opportunities. The article implies that through technology, distance learning enhances opportunities for interaction, cooperative learning, and the formation of communities of learners rather than relying on traditional face-to-face lecture. Without technology the search skills of the librarian or student access is limited by factors influencing the magnitude of the collection. Derlin clearly depicts how representative surveys on library usage suggest that library patrons which also include distant learners, are interested in technology and the use of computers as means to pursue knowledge. The article shows that as access to more information through electronic means continues to increase, the public’s interest in technology as a means to master is being realized. It states that the traditional reliance on print media is being gradually eroded and the learning environment is becoming more and more technologically diverse and complex. It is suggested that the goals and aspirations must be supported through expanded and technological sophisticated services that will not only identify information sources, but also develop them. The article claims that just as the Internet and World Wide Web have eliminated the physical distance between many traditional respiratory libraries, in-home computers can eliminate the physical distance between the individual and the information’s resident location. Derling points out that the technological environment is getting ever more user friendly. The introduction of sound and pictures magnifies the educational experience and supports the varied learning styles of individual learners.. The development of electronic learning modules provide a basis for the information centers of the future. The article makes the implication that the challenge presently faced by distant learners pursuing knowledge is not how to access some or enough information, but how effective it is to use and manage existing technologies for distant learning. The Internet will continue to provide an unparalleled state of world-wide connectivity among diverse people and access to it will increasingly and extend to people in their homes, vehicles, post offices, information centers, malls, offices and educational centers. This article also concludes that individuals will increasingly be able to self-publish their views on the Internet, more broadly than ever before and far more accessible to others than traditional printed media. The future library as information center will have an expanded role in providing educational activities, services, material and opportunities for human interaction. The library will also provide technology for human interaction. Future libraries will continue to incorporate existing and improved technologies in new and creative ways.
Reference
Derlin, Roberta l.; Distance Learning and the Digital Library: Transforming the Library into an Information Center. (1996): US Department of Education Resource Information Center.
In the article titled, Distance Learning and the Digital Library: Transforming the Library into an Information Center, Roberta Derlin attempts to show a vision of the transformation of the library from a respiratory of printed material to a digital library serving as a complete information center. This article portrays how emphasis is being placed on distance education since the future information centers will be distant learner-centered. Technology has the power of transforming libraries into the digital library of the future. According to Derlin, distance learning continues to proliferate and expand educational opportunities. The article implies that through technology, distance learning enhances opportunities for interaction, cooperative learning, and the formation of communities of learners rather than relying on traditional face-to-face lecture. Without technology the search skills of the librarian or student access is limited by factors influencing the magnitude of the collection. Derlin clearly depicts how representative surveys on library usage suggest that library patrons which also include distant learners, are interested in technology and the use of computers as means to pursue knowledge. The article shows that as access to more information through electronic means continues to increase, the public’s interest in technology as a means to master is being realized. It states that the traditional reliance on print media is being gradually eroded and the learning environment is becoming more and more technologically diverse and complex. It is suggested that the goals and aspirations must be supported through expanded and technological sophisticated services that will not only identify information sources, but also develop them. The article claims that just as the Internet and World Wide Web have eliminated the physical distance between many traditional respiratory libraries, in-home computers can eliminate the physical distance between the individual and the information’s resident location. Derling points out that the technological environment is getting ever more user friendly. The introduction of sound and pictures magnifies the educational experience and supports the varied learning styles of individual learners.. The development of electronic learning modules provide a basis for the information centers of the future. The article makes the implication that the challenge presently faced by distant learners pursuing knowledge is not how to access some or enough information, but how effective it is to use and manage existing technologies for distant learning. The Internet will continue to provide an unparalleled state of world-wide connectivity among diverse people and access to it will increasingly and extend to people in their homes, vehicles, post offices, information centers, malls, offices and educational centers. This article also concludes that individuals will increasingly be able to self-publish their views on the Internet, more broadly than ever before and far more accessible to others than traditional printed media. The future library as information center will have an expanded role in providing educational activities, services, material and opportunities for human interaction. The library will also provide technology for human interaction. Future libraries will continue to incorporate existing and improved technologies in new and creative ways.
Reference
Derlin, Roberta l.; Distance Learning and the Digital Library: Transforming the Library into an Information Center. (1996): US Department of Education Resource Information Center.
Power and Policy
Powers do affect the education system and the power that shape them. Much of that power is wielded by individual employees of the system, acting in their capacity as government officials. Their power ultimately rests on their institution and the policies and traditions behind it, not on their personal characteristics. As the twenty-first century begins, the legitimacy of all authority is weakened, educators have to learn to use other types of powers, and understanding the power relationship in their policy environment becomes more important than ever. Developing an understanding of power is therefore crucial for education leaders.
Implementation is the stage of the policy process in which a policy formally adopted by a government body is put into practice. The major actors in the implementation arena are the implementers. These include government officials who have the legal authority to see that a new policy is put into effect. Successful implementation depends upon developing and maintaining both the will and the capacity of the intermediaries. The individuals and agencies that must cooperate in order to implement a policy must have reasons for doing so, therefore they must be willing. Implementation is an important part of the work of all school leaders and one that they often dread. Today no excuse exists for failure; a good knowledge base, combined with thought and planning, will lead to success in this difficult endeavor.
Power raise ethical issues, power tends to corrupt and absolute power corrupts absolutely. Power is seductive, even addictive tonic, and anyone who takes it, ostensibly for a limited time and for a limited purpose, invariably finds it easier and easier to justify retaining and exercising it beyond these limits. Educators have been notably susceptible to this temptation. Power is to be exercised consciously, with awareness of its corrupting potential and one’s own susceptibility. School leaders should consider power a useful but potentially dangerous tool, similar to an automobile. Leaders must exercise power while consciously thinking about what they are doing.
School Failure-This is a striking issue in schools today. Educators should not dwell on the failure itself but examine the policies that precipitate the failure. Therefore it would be advantageous to reassess the implementation of policies in a school. Student failure is usually as a result of poor leadership. Factors such as inconsistency, poor judgment, consequences for inappropriate behavior, lack of professional development for teachers, will result in a failing school. Policy therefore plays a vital role in the culture or tone of schools.
References
Almond, G. A., (1990). A discipline divided: Schools and sects in political science.
Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Corson D. (1995). Discursive power in educational organizations: an introduction.
Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press.
Dunlap & Goldman, (1991). Rethinking power in schools. Educational Administration
Quarterly, 27, 5-29.
Lindblom, C. E., (1968). The policy making process. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice
Hall.
Mann, M., (1992) The source of social power. Vol. 1. Cambridge, England: Cambridge
University Press.
Muth, R.,(1984). Toward an integrative theory of power and educational organizations.
Educational Administration Quarterly, 20, 25-42.
Implementation is the stage of the policy process in which a policy formally adopted by a government body is put into practice. The major actors in the implementation arena are the implementers. These include government officials who have the legal authority to see that a new policy is put into effect. Successful implementation depends upon developing and maintaining both the will and the capacity of the intermediaries. The individuals and agencies that must cooperate in order to implement a policy must have reasons for doing so, therefore they must be willing. Implementation is an important part of the work of all school leaders and one that they often dread. Today no excuse exists for failure; a good knowledge base, combined with thought and planning, will lead to success in this difficult endeavor.
Power raise ethical issues, power tends to corrupt and absolute power corrupts absolutely. Power is seductive, even addictive tonic, and anyone who takes it, ostensibly for a limited time and for a limited purpose, invariably finds it easier and easier to justify retaining and exercising it beyond these limits. Educators have been notably susceptible to this temptation. Power is to be exercised consciously, with awareness of its corrupting potential and one’s own susceptibility. School leaders should consider power a useful but potentially dangerous tool, similar to an automobile. Leaders must exercise power while consciously thinking about what they are doing.
School Failure-This is a striking issue in schools today. Educators should not dwell on the failure itself but examine the policies that precipitate the failure. Therefore it would be advantageous to reassess the implementation of policies in a school. Student failure is usually as a result of poor leadership. Factors such as inconsistency, poor judgment, consequences for inappropriate behavior, lack of professional development for teachers, will result in a failing school. Policy therefore plays a vital role in the culture or tone of schools.
References
Almond, G. A., (1990). A discipline divided: Schools and sects in political science.
Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Corson D. (1995). Discursive power in educational organizations: an introduction.
Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press.
Dunlap & Goldman, (1991). Rethinking power in schools. Educational Administration
Quarterly, 27, 5-29.
Lindblom, C. E., (1968). The policy making process. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice
Hall.
Mann, M., (1992) The source of social power. Vol. 1. Cambridge, England: Cambridge
University Press.
Muth, R.,(1984). Toward an integrative theory of power and educational organizations.
Educational Administration Quarterly, 20, 25-42.
Educational Neglet in Low Performing Schools
One should walk around a low-performing school and then travel to a school in a well-financed suburban school district. The differences will be starkly apparent. In the low-performing school, one is likely to find crumbling, out-of-date facilities; minimal use of technology; and many teachers with emergency credentials or teaching outside their area of expertise. In the suburban school, one is likely to find modern, well-maintained facilities, the latest technologies, up-to-date textbooks and certified teachers with ample experience. The students of these low-performing schools deserve better. Many of these schools and their communities have already begun that process and would benefit greatly from the federal government making them and their students a much higher priority. They have learned that the basics can make a difference in their schools. That means more instructional time, aligned standards, parental involvement, more resources and training, instructional leadership and other steps designed to place the student first.
The question of whether money makes a difference in providing public education for students has plagued our nation for over 30 years. This issue first surfaced in the 1960’s, when an influential federal report discussed the topic of whether money made a difference in improving public schools for poor and minority students. The debate continues 30 years later, and the question of how funds can be effectively utilized to provide all students with a quality and equitable education remains unanswered. The American debate over the effect of money on education is tremendously complex. Educators continue to wonder about the impact that money has on education, and essentially on student achievement. Evidently, it is common to find that low-income schools do not perform as well as schools in wealthy neighborhoods. It is clear that educating students entails the expenditure of funds. The debate stands at how much of the actual funds should be expended on education and where should the money go.
The uses of educational resources vary a great deal from state to state. Per-pupil expenditure and teacher salary range from very low, to double or triple the amount depending on the state. As a whole it would be difficult to assess in reliable numbers the ideal cost of educating a student in the United States.
The amount of funds spent on education has a direct impact on:
Class size
Student/teacher ratio
Pre-school programs
Academic intervention programs
Teacher training
The mentioned components are crucial to student academic success. Money is directly related to the overall nature of education; moreover the success of the educational system depends on the funds invested into it.
In schools of different socio economic backgrounds, the most prominent characteristics are differences in student scores on state exams. Students that are enrolled in schools of high economic background tend to perform better on state examinations. The quality of education is not equitable in wealthy schools as compared to low-income schools. Odden & Piccus (2003) conclude that while lower-economic districts still tend to have below-average spending levels, they do so because they also have below-average tax rates. Consequently, low-income families can’t afford quality education for their children. Jeremy Finn (1998) concludes that smaller classes have an advantage over larger classes. Evidence suggests that smaller classes have a higher chance of student success especially in the early grades. In his article, Gerald Bracey describes the use of data from the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) and the U.S. Department of Education; his comparison concluded “for the elementary level, increased expenditures on administration and instruction served principally to lower pupil/teacher ratios, which directly influenced achievement. “(Bracey p2).
Instructors in low performing schools will attest that their place of instruction is lacking in the resources that successful schools receive, such as the technology and materials that assist in differentiating instruction. In the comparison and contrast of the quality of education afforded to students in affluent schools and the quality of education students receive in poor communities, the wealthier schools receive a higher apportionment of funds for schools because the residents pay higher school taxes. The final product of these educational institutions clearly denotes a degree of academic success for schools that receive more money. The differences in schools and outcomes are grounded on the amount of money that is invested in these schools. “No matter how many elected school officials declare that “poverty is not an excuse” for poor school performance, the fact remains that children in poverty do not achieve well in school.”(Bracey p2). Studies conclude that the schools that receive the least amount of funds perform poorly. Odden and Piccus (2003) clarify that revenues for public schools are almost $400 billion, and consume 3.9 percent of the country’s gross domestic product and 4.5 percent of all personal income. Moreover, the research shows that revenues for public schools grew consistently during the twentieth century, so that by the end of the twentieth century and the beginning of the twenty-first century an average of $6, 855 was expended on each public school student. Unfortunately, those dollars were distributed unequally across states, districts, schools and students.
The effects of the unequal distribution of funds, impacts school budget in low-income neighborhoods. William Hartman denotes that during the planning stage of the budgeting process, the district plans programs and services offered to students such as:
· Educational program standards,
· Support and central office activities,
· Resources to be utilized,
· Process paid for the resources,
· The total cost of the educational programs
This is all within the constraints of available funding (p8).
The most current research findings indicate that increased investments in public education can produce substantial benefits in student achievement, particularly among low-income students. Because low-income students lag in academic achievement, and many poor school districts continue to receive funding levels below those of wealthier districts, high-poverty school districts represent both the greatest need for education funding and the greatest opportunity to improve student outcomes. Recent analyses of the cost of closing the achievement gap in these schools indicate that while many states are providing some funding in pursuit of these goals, few, if any, are providing enough money to fully compensate for the educational barriers associated with poverty.
To ensure that no child is left behind, America must make the challenge of fixing the Nation's low-performing schools its top priority. Located primarily in low-income rural and urban communities, these schools suffer from inadequate resources and substandard outcomes for students. They are particularly burdened by the fact that Title I of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, the primary vehicle for closing the achievement gap between lower-income and other students, is funded at just one-third of its full level. Low-performing schools need immediate and dramatic assistance to lift them up to the high-performance institutions every school should be.
The good news is that this process is occurring in many previously low-performing schools. But the federal government, in partnership with states and school districts, must take the lead in making it universal.
Reference
Bracey, G. (1997). Money Matters: No It Doesn’t, Yes It Does. Phi Delta Kappa (v) 78
i7 p 162+
Finn, J.D. (1998). Class size and students at risk: What is known? What is next?
National Institution of the Education of at Risk Students. Office of Educational Research and improvement. (OERI) U. S. Department of Education. Washington DC
Hartman W. T. (2003). School district budgeting. Lanham, MD Association of School
Business Officials/Scarecrow Press (Rowman & Littlefield).
Odden, A. & Picus, L. (2003). School finance: A policy perspective (3rd ed.). New York:
McGraw-Hill.
The question of whether money makes a difference in providing public education for students has plagued our nation for over 30 years. This issue first surfaced in the 1960’s, when an influential federal report discussed the topic of whether money made a difference in improving public schools for poor and minority students. The debate continues 30 years later, and the question of how funds can be effectively utilized to provide all students with a quality and equitable education remains unanswered. The American debate over the effect of money on education is tremendously complex. Educators continue to wonder about the impact that money has on education, and essentially on student achievement. Evidently, it is common to find that low-income schools do not perform as well as schools in wealthy neighborhoods. It is clear that educating students entails the expenditure of funds. The debate stands at how much of the actual funds should be expended on education and where should the money go.
The uses of educational resources vary a great deal from state to state. Per-pupil expenditure and teacher salary range from very low, to double or triple the amount depending on the state. As a whole it would be difficult to assess in reliable numbers the ideal cost of educating a student in the United States.
The amount of funds spent on education has a direct impact on:
Class size
Student/teacher ratio
Pre-school programs
Academic intervention programs
Teacher training
The mentioned components are crucial to student academic success. Money is directly related to the overall nature of education; moreover the success of the educational system depends on the funds invested into it.
In schools of different socio economic backgrounds, the most prominent characteristics are differences in student scores on state exams. Students that are enrolled in schools of high economic background tend to perform better on state examinations. The quality of education is not equitable in wealthy schools as compared to low-income schools. Odden & Piccus (2003) conclude that while lower-economic districts still tend to have below-average spending levels, they do so because they also have below-average tax rates. Consequently, low-income families can’t afford quality education for their children. Jeremy Finn (1998) concludes that smaller classes have an advantage over larger classes. Evidence suggests that smaller classes have a higher chance of student success especially in the early grades. In his article, Gerald Bracey describes the use of data from the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) and the U.S. Department of Education; his comparison concluded “for the elementary level, increased expenditures on administration and instruction served principally to lower pupil/teacher ratios, which directly influenced achievement. “(Bracey p2).
Instructors in low performing schools will attest that their place of instruction is lacking in the resources that successful schools receive, such as the technology and materials that assist in differentiating instruction. In the comparison and contrast of the quality of education afforded to students in affluent schools and the quality of education students receive in poor communities, the wealthier schools receive a higher apportionment of funds for schools because the residents pay higher school taxes. The final product of these educational institutions clearly denotes a degree of academic success for schools that receive more money. The differences in schools and outcomes are grounded on the amount of money that is invested in these schools. “No matter how many elected school officials declare that “poverty is not an excuse” for poor school performance, the fact remains that children in poverty do not achieve well in school.”(Bracey p2). Studies conclude that the schools that receive the least amount of funds perform poorly. Odden and Piccus (2003) clarify that revenues for public schools are almost $400 billion, and consume 3.9 percent of the country’s gross domestic product and 4.5 percent of all personal income. Moreover, the research shows that revenues for public schools grew consistently during the twentieth century, so that by the end of the twentieth century and the beginning of the twenty-first century an average of $6, 855 was expended on each public school student. Unfortunately, those dollars were distributed unequally across states, districts, schools and students.
The effects of the unequal distribution of funds, impacts school budget in low-income neighborhoods. William Hartman denotes that during the planning stage of the budgeting process, the district plans programs and services offered to students such as:
· Educational program standards,
· Support and central office activities,
· Resources to be utilized,
· Process paid for the resources,
· The total cost of the educational programs
This is all within the constraints of available funding (p8).
The most current research findings indicate that increased investments in public education can produce substantial benefits in student achievement, particularly among low-income students. Because low-income students lag in academic achievement, and many poor school districts continue to receive funding levels below those of wealthier districts, high-poverty school districts represent both the greatest need for education funding and the greatest opportunity to improve student outcomes. Recent analyses of the cost of closing the achievement gap in these schools indicate that while many states are providing some funding in pursuit of these goals, few, if any, are providing enough money to fully compensate for the educational barriers associated with poverty.
To ensure that no child is left behind, America must make the challenge of fixing the Nation's low-performing schools its top priority. Located primarily in low-income rural and urban communities, these schools suffer from inadequate resources and substandard outcomes for students. They are particularly burdened by the fact that Title I of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, the primary vehicle for closing the achievement gap between lower-income and other students, is funded at just one-third of its full level. Low-performing schools need immediate and dramatic assistance to lift them up to the high-performance institutions every school should be.
The good news is that this process is occurring in many previously low-performing schools. But the federal government, in partnership with states and school districts, must take the lead in making it universal.
Reference
Bracey, G. (1997). Money Matters: No It Doesn’t, Yes It Does. Phi Delta Kappa (v) 78
i7 p 162+
Finn, J.D. (1998). Class size and students at risk: What is known? What is next?
National Institution of the Education of at Risk Students. Office of Educational Research and improvement. (OERI) U. S. Department of Education. Washington DC
Hartman W. T. (2003). School district budgeting. Lanham, MD Association of School
Business Officials/Scarecrow Press (Rowman & Littlefield).
Odden, A. & Picus, L. (2003). School finance: A policy perspective (3rd ed.). New York:
McGraw-Hill.
Paradigm Shift in Leadership
When I reflect on the leadership in failing schools, I realized that leadership has been based primarily on hierarchical management. Such approaches have led to the creation of rigid systems that depend on rules and procedures and encourage smoldering fires that require constant cure and aid. Hierarchical management does not encourage the analysis of or a focus on the underlying organizational problems. The shared leadership model, in contrast, requires orchestrating a process whereby the competing points of view of the staff coalesce into a cohesive vision. The school leader would model this behavior by embracing a holistic view of the school environment and shaping the internal structures and processes while keeping the bigger picture in mind.
Overseeing the totality of school functions requires leadership, not solely management. Understanding how management and leadership differ is an important concept in providing the kind of vision that is needed to restructure today's schools. Although management provides consistency, leadership, control, and efficiency, leadership is the catalyst for stimulating purpose, passion, and imagination. Management is fundamental to an authoritarian-driven hierarchical structure that seeks to maintain fragmentation in organizational structures. In contrast, leadership offers a opportunity to re-evaluate and restructure a system that is nonoperational, dysfunctional, or poorly operating by building bridges and alliances with colleagues and major stakeholders
Currently schools are not structured in ways that invite easy adaptation to student needs. As we begin to think about tailoring instructional strategies and interventions to fit diverse student needs, the paradigm that governs school organization will need to move towards hierarchically structured team roles and away from hierarchically structured compartmentalized roles. School administrators will be needed to encourage staff to embrace change rather than endure, or resist it. The changing paradigm in school organization is one that views students, teachers, and principals in distinctly different roles than they have traditionally held. We propose that the vision of leadership and school organization shift to one in which the student is viewed as client and customer rather than a product, the teacher is seen as an innovator and initiator rather than the production unit and the principal is viewed as an organizational leader rather than the production manager. Principals who can bring about effective instruction, foster a quality of leadership that encourages flexibility, open lines of communication, and invite negotiation among school staff hold the greatest potential for promoting successful student outcomes.
The new leader should be an instructional specialist. Assessment and instruction must be a seamless web that promotes teacher/student collaboration, active learning, critical thinking skills and multidisciplinary understanding (Khattri, Kane and Reeve, 1995). To do this, the leader must first acknowledge the fact that different students learn in different ways. The next step is to prepare differently. This means that activities are varied to address the "seven intelligences" as outlined by Howard Gardner in his 1983 book "Frames of Mind" and explored further by Thomas Armstrong (1994). The seven intelligences are:
1. Linguistic.2. Logical-mathematical.3. Spatial.4. Bodily-kinesthetic.5. Musical.6. Interpersonal.7. Intrapersonal.
Randy Schenkat (1993) suggests six task themes must underlie the Total Quality Management process in schools. The task themes are: 1. the nature of the problem; 2. the motivation for the task; 3. time frames to accomplish tasks; 4. the nature of solutions; 5. the human capacities used to accomplish the tasks; and 6. the assessment of the results or program evaluation.
References
Butterfield, K. D., Treviño, L. K. & Weaver, G. R. (2000). Moral awareness in business
organizations: Influences of issue-related and social context factors. Human
Relations, 53, 981-1018.
Feldhusen, J. E, & Pleiss, M. K. (1994). Leadership: A synthesis of social skills,
creativity, and histrionic ability? Roeper Review, 16, 292-293. Hensel, N. H. (1991). Social leadership skills in young children. Roeper Review, 14,
4-6.(restructuring,vision) KW" name=K2Query> KW " name=EnglishQuery>(VISION,RESTRUCTURING)" name=FulltextHighlightQuery>
Fred M. Newmann et. al., Successful School Restructuring: A Report to the public and
Educators (Center on Organization and Restructuring of Schools, 1995).
Goleman, D. Working with emotional intelligence. New York:
John Henry Cardinal Newman, Knowledge Viewed in Relation to Learning, Idea of a
University, lectures originally given in 1852 (London: Longmans, Green, and Co.,
(1912).WBN: 9619703462013
Karnes, F. A., & Bean, S. M. (1996). Leadership and the gifted. Focus on Exceptional
Children, 29(1), 1-12.
Kelly, G.A., Constructs The psychology of Personal. New York: Norton, 1955.
Lindsey, R.B., Robins, K.N., Terrell, R.D. (1999). Cultural proficiency: A Manual for
school leaders. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin
Michael G. Fullan, Reculturning Schools, Phi Delta Kappan (February 1996: X). Mary
Kennedy, Policy Issues in Teaching Education, Phi Delta Kappan (May 1991:
661-666).
Peters, T. J., Liberation Management: Necessary Disorganization for the Nanosecond
Nineties. New York:Knopf, 1992.
Schein, Edgar H., Career Dynamics. Addison Wesley, Reading, Classic on
career management and career anchors. MA, 1978.
Wilber, K., Integral Psychology. Boston: Shambhala, 2000.
Overseeing the totality of school functions requires leadership, not solely management. Understanding how management and leadership differ is an important concept in providing the kind of vision that is needed to restructure today's schools. Although management provides consistency, leadership, control, and efficiency, leadership is the catalyst for stimulating purpose, passion, and imagination. Management is fundamental to an authoritarian-driven hierarchical structure that seeks to maintain fragmentation in organizational structures. In contrast, leadership offers a opportunity to re-evaluate and restructure a system that is nonoperational, dysfunctional, or poorly operating by building bridges and alliances with colleagues and major stakeholders
Currently schools are not structured in ways that invite easy adaptation to student needs. As we begin to think about tailoring instructional strategies and interventions to fit diverse student needs, the paradigm that governs school organization will need to move towards hierarchically structured team roles and away from hierarchically structured compartmentalized roles. School administrators will be needed to encourage staff to embrace change rather than endure, or resist it. The changing paradigm in school organization is one that views students, teachers, and principals in distinctly different roles than they have traditionally held. We propose that the vision of leadership and school organization shift to one in which the student is viewed as client and customer rather than a product, the teacher is seen as an innovator and initiator rather than the production unit and the principal is viewed as an organizational leader rather than the production manager. Principals who can bring about effective instruction, foster a quality of leadership that encourages flexibility, open lines of communication, and invite negotiation among school staff hold the greatest potential for promoting successful student outcomes.
The new leader should be an instructional specialist. Assessment and instruction must be a seamless web that promotes teacher/student collaboration, active learning, critical thinking skills and multidisciplinary understanding (Khattri, Kane and Reeve, 1995). To do this, the leader must first acknowledge the fact that different students learn in different ways. The next step is to prepare differently. This means that activities are varied to address the "seven intelligences" as outlined by Howard Gardner in his 1983 book "Frames of Mind" and explored further by Thomas Armstrong (1994). The seven intelligences are:
1. Linguistic.2. Logical-mathematical.3. Spatial.4. Bodily-kinesthetic.5. Musical.6. Interpersonal.7. Intrapersonal.
Randy Schenkat (1993) suggests six task themes must underlie the Total Quality Management process in schools. The task themes are: 1. the nature of the problem; 2. the motivation for the task; 3. time frames to accomplish tasks; 4. the nature of solutions; 5. the human capacities used to accomplish the tasks; and 6. the assessment of the results or program evaluation.
References
Butterfield, K. D., Treviño, L. K. & Weaver, G. R. (2000). Moral awareness in business
organizations: Influences of issue-related and social context factors. Human
Relations, 53, 981-1018.
Feldhusen, J. E, & Pleiss, M. K. (1994). Leadership: A synthesis of social skills,
creativity, and histrionic ability? Roeper Review, 16, 292-293. Hensel, N. H. (1991). Social leadership skills in young children. Roeper Review, 14,
4-6.(restructuring,vision) KW" name=K2Query> KW " name=EnglishQuery>(VISION,RESTRUCTURING)" name=FulltextHighlightQuery>
Fred M. Newmann et. al., Successful School Restructuring: A Report to the public and
Educators (Center on Organization and Restructuring of Schools, 1995).
Goleman, D. Working with emotional intelligence. New York:
John Henry Cardinal Newman, Knowledge Viewed in Relation to Learning, Idea of a
University, lectures originally given in 1852 (London: Longmans, Green, and Co.,
(1912).WBN: 9619703462013
Karnes, F. A., & Bean, S. M. (1996). Leadership and the gifted. Focus on Exceptional
Children, 29(1), 1-12.
Kelly, G.A., Constructs The psychology of Personal. New York: Norton, 1955.
Lindsey, R.B., Robins, K.N., Terrell, R.D. (1999). Cultural proficiency: A Manual for
school leaders. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin
Michael G. Fullan, Reculturning Schools, Phi Delta Kappan (February 1996: X). Mary
Kennedy, Policy Issues in Teaching Education, Phi Delta Kappan (May 1991:
661-666).
Peters, T. J., Liberation Management: Necessary Disorganization for the Nanosecond
Nineties. New York:Knopf, 1992.
Schein, Edgar H., Career Dynamics. Addison Wesley, Reading, Classic on
career management and career anchors. MA, 1978.
Wilber, K., Integral Psychology. Boston: Shambhala, 2000.
Strategies for Managing Change Effectively
This is helpful particularly for leaders that have been assigned to a new school or environment. Managing change effectively requires moving the organization from its current state to a future desired state at minimal cost to the organization. Bateman and Zeithaml identified three steps for managers to follow in implementing organizational change:
Diagnose the current state of the organization. This involves identifying problems the company faces, assigning a level of importance to each one, and assessing the kinds of changes needed to solve the problems.
Design the desired future state of the organization. This involves picturing the ideal situation for the company after the change is implemented, conveying this vision clearly to everyone involved in the change effort, and designing a means of transition to the new state. An important part of the transition should be maintaining some sort of stability; some things—such as the company's over-all mission or key personnel—should re-main constant in the midst of turmoil to help reduce people's anxiety.
Implement the change. This involves managing the transition effectively. It might be helpful to draw up a plan, allocate resources, and appoint a key person to take charge of the change process. The company's leaders should try to generate enthusiasm for the change by sharing their goals and vision and acting as role models. In some cases, it may be useful to try for small victories first in order to pave the way for later successes.
"Successfully changing an enterprise requires wisdom, prescience, energy, persistence, communication, education, training, resources, patience, timing, and the right incentives, " John S. McCallum wrote in the Ivey Business Journal. "Successfully leading and managing change is and will continue to be a front-burner responsibility for executives. Prospects are grim for enterprises that either cannot or will not change. Indeed, no industry member is quite so welcome as the one that steadfastly refuses to keep up."
FURTHER READING:
Adebanjo, Dotun. "Corporate Restructuring: Managing the Change Problem from Within." Leadership and Organization Development Journal. September 1996.
Austin, Mary Ruth. "Managing Change." Manage. August 1997.
Bateman, Thomas S., and Carl P. Zeithaml. Management: Function and Strategy. Homewood, IL: Irwin, 1990.
Dove, Rick. "The Principles of Change." Automotive Manufacturing and Production. March 1997.
Hurst, David K. "When It Comes to Real Change, Too Much Objectivity May Be Fatal to the Process." Strategy and Leader-ship. March-April 1997.
Maurer, Rick. "Transforming Resistance." HR Focus. October 1997.
McCallum, John S. "The Face Behind Change." Ivey Business Quarterly. Winter 1997.
Recardo, Ronald J. "Overcoming Resistance to Change." National Productivity Review. Spring 1995.
Schwartz, Andrew E. "Eight Guidelines for Managing Change." Supervisory Management. July 1994.
Trahant, Bill, W. Warner Burke, and Richard Koonce. "Twelve Principles of Organizational Transformation." Management Review. September 1997.
Wallington, Patricia M. "Making Change." CIO. April 1, 2000.
Diagnose the current state of the organization. This involves identifying problems the company faces, assigning a level of importance to each one, and assessing the kinds of changes needed to solve the problems.
Design the desired future state of the organization. This involves picturing the ideal situation for the company after the change is implemented, conveying this vision clearly to everyone involved in the change effort, and designing a means of transition to the new state. An important part of the transition should be maintaining some sort of stability; some things—such as the company's over-all mission or key personnel—should re-main constant in the midst of turmoil to help reduce people's anxiety.
Implement the change. This involves managing the transition effectively. It might be helpful to draw up a plan, allocate resources, and appoint a key person to take charge of the change process. The company's leaders should try to generate enthusiasm for the change by sharing their goals and vision and acting as role models. In some cases, it may be useful to try for small victories first in order to pave the way for later successes.
"Successfully changing an enterprise requires wisdom, prescience, energy, persistence, communication, education, training, resources, patience, timing, and the right incentives, " John S. McCallum wrote in the Ivey Business Journal. "Successfully leading and managing change is and will continue to be a front-burner responsibility for executives. Prospects are grim for enterprises that either cannot or will not change. Indeed, no industry member is quite so welcome as the one that steadfastly refuses to keep up."
FURTHER READING:
Adebanjo, Dotun. "Corporate Restructuring: Managing the Change Problem from Within." Leadership and Organization Development Journal. September 1996.
Austin, Mary Ruth. "Managing Change." Manage. August 1997.
Bateman, Thomas S., and Carl P. Zeithaml. Management: Function and Strategy. Homewood, IL: Irwin, 1990.
Dove, Rick. "The Principles of Change." Automotive Manufacturing and Production. March 1997.
Hurst, David K. "When It Comes to Real Change, Too Much Objectivity May Be Fatal to the Process." Strategy and Leader-ship. March-April 1997.
Maurer, Rick. "Transforming Resistance." HR Focus. October 1997.
McCallum, John S. "The Face Behind Change." Ivey Business Quarterly. Winter 1997.
Recardo, Ronald J. "Overcoming Resistance to Change." National Productivity Review. Spring 1995.
Schwartz, Andrew E. "Eight Guidelines for Managing Change." Supervisory Management. July 1994.
Trahant, Bill, W. Warner Burke, and Richard Koonce. "Twelve Principles of Organizational Transformation." Management Review. September 1997.
Wallington, Patricia M. "Making Change." CIO. April 1, 2000.
RESISTANCE TO CHANGE
As a new principal in a school where staff members were loyal to the previous principal, this was a challenging one. A manager trying to implement a change, no matter how small, should expect to encounter some resistance from within the organization. Resistance to change is a normal reaction from people who have become accustomed to a certain way of doing things. Of course, certain situations or tactics can increase resistance. "Individuals, groups, and organizations must be motivated to change. But if people perceive no performance gap or if they consider the gap un-important, they will not have this motivation. Moreover, they will resist changes that others try to introduce, " Bateman and Zeithaml explained.
The authors outlined a number of common reasons that people tend to resist change. These include: inertia, or the tendency of people to become comfortable with the status quo; timing, as when change efforts are introduced at a time when workers are busy or have a bad relationship with management; surprise, because people's reflex is to resist when they must deal with a sudden, radical change; or peer pressure, which may cause a group to resist due to anti-management feelings even if individual members do not oppose the change. Resistance can also grow out of people's perceptions of how the change will affect them personally. They may resist because they fear that they will lose their jobs or their status, because they do not understand the purpose of the change, or simply because they have a different perspective on the change than management.
Fortunately, Bateman and Zeithaml noted, there are a number of steps managers can take to help overcome resistance to change. One proven method is education and communication. Employees can be informed about both the nature of the change and the logic behind it before it takes place through reports, memos, group presentations, or individual discussions. Another important component of overcoming resistance is inviting employee participation and involvement in both the design and implementation phases of the change effort. "People who are involved in decisions understand them better and are more committed to them, " Bateman and Zeithaml explained. Another possible approach to managing resistance to change is through facilitation and support. Managers should be sure to provide employees with the resources they need to make the change, be supportive of their efforts, listen to their problems with empathy, and accept that their performance level may drop initially.
Some companies manage to overcome resistance to change through negotiation and rewards. They offer employees concrete incentives to ensure their cooperation. Other companies resort to manipulation, or using subtle tactics such as giving a resistance leader a prominent position in the change effort. A final option is coercion, which involves punishing people who resist or using force to ensure their cooperation. Although this method can be useful when speed is of the essence, it can have lingering negative effects on the company. Of course, no method is appropriate to every situation, and a number of different methods may be combined as needed. As Bateman and Zeithaml stated, "Effective change managers are familiar with the various approaches and capable of flexibly applying them according to the situation."
FURTHER READING:
Adebanjo, Dotun. "Corporate Restructuring: Managing the Change Problem from Within." Leadership and Organization Development Journal. September 1996.
Austin, Mary Ruth. "Managing Change." Manage. August 1997.
Bateman, Thomas S., and Carl P. Zeithaml. Management: Function and Strategy. Homewood, IL: Irwin, 1990.
Dove, Rick. "The Principles of Change." Automotive Manufacturing and Production. March 1997.
Hurst, David K. "When It Comes to Real Change, Too Much Objectivity May Be Fatal to the Process." Strategy and Leader-ship. March-April 1997.
Maurer, Rick. "Transforming Resistance." HR Focus. October 1997.
McCallum, John S. "The Face Behind Change." Ivey Business Quarterly. Winter 1997.
Recardo, Ronald J. "Overcoming Resistance to Change." National Productivity Review. Spring 1995.
Schwartz, Andrew E. "Eight Guidelines for Managing Change." Supervisory Management. July 1994.
Trahant, Bill, W. Warner Burke, and Richard Koonce. "Twelve Principles of Organizational Transformation." Management Review. September 1997.
Wallington, Patricia M. "Making Change." CIO. April 1, 2000.
The authors outlined a number of common reasons that people tend to resist change. These include: inertia, or the tendency of people to become comfortable with the status quo; timing, as when change efforts are introduced at a time when workers are busy or have a bad relationship with management; surprise, because people's reflex is to resist when they must deal with a sudden, radical change; or peer pressure, which may cause a group to resist due to anti-management feelings even if individual members do not oppose the change. Resistance can also grow out of people's perceptions of how the change will affect them personally. They may resist because they fear that they will lose their jobs or their status, because they do not understand the purpose of the change, or simply because they have a different perspective on the change than management.
Fortunately, Bateman and Zeithaml noted, there are a number of steps managers can take to help overcome resistance to change. One proven method is education and communication. Employees can be informed about both the nature of the change and the logic behind it before it takes place through reports, memos, group presentations, or individual discussions. Another important component of overcoming resistance is inviting employee participation and involvement in both the design and implementation phases of the change effort. "People who are involved in decisions understand them better and are more committed to them, " Bateman and Zeithaml explained. Another possible approach to managing resistance to change is through facilitation and support. Managers should be sure to provide employees with the resources they need to make the change, be supportive of their efforts, listen to their problems with empathy, and accept that their performance level may drop initially.
Some companies manage to overcome resistance to change through negotiation and rewards. They offer employees concrete incentives to ensure their cooperation. Other companies resort to manipulation, or using subtle tactics such as giving a resistance leader a prominent position in the change effort. A final option is coercion, which involves punishing people who resist or using force to ensure their cooperation. Although this method can be useful when speed is of the essence, it can have lingering negative effects on the company. Of course, no method is appropriate to every situation, and a number of different methods may be combined as needed. As Bateman and Zeithaml stated, "Effective change managers are familiar with the various approaches and capable of flexibly applying them according to the situation."
FURTHER READING:
Adebanjo, Dotun. "Corporate Restructuring: Managing the Change Problem from Within." Leadership and Organization Development Journal. September 1996.
Austin, Mary Ruth. "Managing Change." Manage. August 1997.
Bateman, Thomas S., and Carl P. Zeithaml. Management: Function and Strategy. Homewood, IL: Irwin, 1990.
Dove, Rick. "The Principles of Change." Automotive Manufacturing and Production. March 1997.
Hurst, David K. "When It Comes to Real Change, Too Much Objectivity May Be Fatal to the Process." Strategy and Leader-ship. March-April 1997.
Maurer, Rick. "Transforming Resistance." HR Focus. October 1997.
McCallum, John S. "The Face Behind Change." Ivey Business Quarterly. Winter 1997.
Recardo, Ronald J. "Overcoming Resistance to Change." National Productivity Review. Spring 1995.
Schwartz, Andrew E. "Eight Guidelines for Managing Change." Supervisory Management. July 1994.
Trahant, Bill, W. Warner Burke, and Richard Koonce. "Twelve Principles of Organizational Transformation." Management Review. September 1997.
Wallington, Patricia M. "Making Change." CIO. April 1, 2000.
Education and Ethics
I am moved to post this article due to the overwhelming unethical behaviors in the of education. More recently, Butterfield, Trevino, and Weaver (2000) defined moral awareness as “a person's recognition that his or her potential decision or action could affect the interests, welfare, or expectations of the self or others in a fashion that may conflict with one or more ethical standards” (p. 982). Determining whether a decision “conflicts with one or more ethical standards” requires an analysis of how the decision compares against standards of moral behavior, a process that threatens to confound the constructs of moral awareness and moral judgment. Instead, what is required is merely an acknowledgment that such comparisons are appropriate; that moral standards are relevant to the issue's contents; and that the individual can justifiably apply the vocabularies, frameworks, and tools of moral analysis to the situation. Lindsey, Robins, & Terrell (1999) found that ethical decision-making on behalf of students of color is enhanced when leaders achieve cultural proficiency. Culturally proficient leadership is defined as leadership which goes beyond the esteeming of culture to take every opportunity to increase formally and informally the awareness level and knowledge base of self and others about culture and about the dynamics of difference. Such leaders are able to identify issues of class, caste, culture, gender, and ability which are barriers to the implementation of change initiatives to improve educational opportunities for all children.
My conclusion is that no matter how hard we strive to be objective, a value derived from the rational scientific approach, in our empowerment efforts, this is simply not possible. In many respect, modern physics has clearly demonstrated that the old-styled approach of neutrality of the observer is a fiction there is no such thing as being neutral. Whether we like it or not, we affect the world by virtue of our personal histories and preferences, and also the cultural paradigm we were raised in. We see, hear and respond to the world according to what we are capable of seeing, hearing and responding to. For example, a medically-trained professional would tend to view an emotional imbalance as the result of a chemical imbalance, and thus the solution would focus upon restoring that chemical imbalance. However, a psychologist would view the chemical imbalance as the result of an emotional imbalance, and seek to address the emotional issue. In the same way, a government would view small-scale farmers as having the potential to form the back-bone of a viable export economy. However, that same small-scale farmer may view his (or her) activities as purely focused upon supplying his or her family with food. Therefore, these two agents (government and the farmer) may view agricultural development very differently, and may express completely different needs and priorities. The importance of this issue should not be under-estimated, as it represents a fundamental bridge that psychosocial sciences need to cross in order to be on a par with modern physics and related sciences. Therefore there is no such thing as objectivity. It is a physical and psychosocial impossibility. Some argue that we should at a minimum try to be objective, even though it is impossible. From my point of view, the upholding of the ethic of neutrality is not only impossible, it is also counter-productive.
Therefore, the level of unethical behavior in business is no different now than it has been in the past, it is just that we now have methods of detecting the unethical activity. If we want to create a proactive methodology of reducing ethical risks, we must revisit our present ways of doing business and incorporate better strategies for supporting what is best for our business culture. We can start by revamping our communication process and aligning the appropriate consequence systems. As leaders this is impossible to be completely unethical due to the rigorous demands of our employers.
References
Butterfield, K. D., Treviño, L. K. & Weaver, G. R. (2000). Moral awareness in business organizations: Influences of issue-related and social context factors. Human
Relations, 53, 981-1018.
Lindsey, R.B., Robins, K.N., Terrell, R.D. (1999). Cultural proficiency: A Manual for school leaders. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin
My conclusion is that no matter how hard we strive to be objective, a value derived from the rational scientific approach, in our empowerment efforts, this is simply not possible. In many respect, modern physics has clearly demonstrated that the old-styled approach of neutrality of the observer is a fiction there is no such thing as being neutral. Whether we like it or not, we affect the world by virtue of our personal histories and preferences, and also the cultural paradigm we were raised in. We see, hear and respond to the world according to what we are capable of seeing, hearing and responding to. For example, a medically-trained professional would tend to view an emotional imbalance as the result of a chemical imbalance, and thus the solution would focus upon restoring that chemical imbalance. However, a psychologist would view the chemical imbalance as the result of an emotional imbalance, and seek to address the emotional issue. In the same way, a government would view small-scale farmers as having the potential to form the back-bone of a viable export economy. However, that same small-scale farmer may view his (or her) activities as purely focused upon supplying his or her family with food. Therefore, these two agents (government and the farmer) may view agricultural development very differently, and may express completely different needs and priorities. The importance of this issue should not be under-estimated, as it represents a fundamental bridge that psychosocial sciences need to cross in order to be on a par with modern physics and related sciences. Therefore there is no such thing as objectivity. It is a physical and psychosocial impossibility. Some argue that we should at a minimum try to be objective, even though it is impossible. From my point of view, the upholding of the ethic of neutrality is not only impossible, it is also counter-productive.
Therefore, the level of unethical behavior in business is no different now than it has been in the past, it is just that we now have methods of detecting the unethical activity. If we want to create a proactive methodology of reducing ethical risks, we must revisit our present ways of doing business and incorporate better strategies for supporting what is best for our business culture. We can start by revamping our communication process and aligning the appropriate consequence systems. As leaders this is impossible to be completely unethical due to the rigorous demands of our employers.
References
Butterfield, K. D., Treviño, L. K. & Weaver, G. R. (2000). Moral awareness in business organizations: Influences of issue-related and social context factors. Human
Relations, 53, 981-1018.
Lindsey, R.B., Robins, K.N., Terrell, R.D. (1999). Cultural proficiency: A Manual for school leaders. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin
No Child Left Behind and AYP
Under NCLB, Annual Yearly Performance for high schools is determined based on each school’s progress toward meeting the state proficiency level for all students in English, mathematics, and high school graduation rate. Schools are held accountable for the achievement of students of different races and ethnic groups, students with disabilities, students with limited English proficiency and low-income students. Schools must also have an average over two years of 95% of their students participating in State tests. Schools that do not meet their annual targets in any one of these areas for two consecutive years are identified as Schools in Need of Improvement. This designation means the New York City Department of Education must implement a plan to address academic achievement in these schools and ensure that students make adequate yearly progress towards meeting State standards.
While some schools on the list have educational programs that have produced good results for many students, they have not improved achievement sufficiently for other students. In other cases, not enough students participated in state-required tests.
The State Education Department identifies the following five categories of SINI schools, according to the number of years that the school has not made AYP:
(A) Title I School in Need of Improvement – Year 1
(B) Title I School in Need of Improvement – Year 2
(C) Title I Corrective Action School – Year 1
(D) Title I Corrective Action School – Year 2 (Planning for Restructuring)
(E) Title I School in Restructuring
The NYC Department of Education is committed to improving student achievement in these schools, and every effort is being made to provide the highest quality instructional program to best meet the needs of every student. Through the Children First initiative, we are taking programs that have been successful in improving teaching and learning and are expanding them to every public school in New York City. Additional fiscal resources have been provided to SINI schools to support whole school improvement efforts and the implementation of targeted interventions to improve student achievement in identified areas.
We are confident that the proven, research-based interventions and exciting new programs that have been introduced citywide and at the school level will make this school year a successful experience for your child. There are many strategies citywide which may include:
A longer school day with an early morning start;
More classroom time devoted to English and math;
Focused academic interventions for struggling students, including specialized support for English language learners and students with disabilities;
Innovative programs to accelerate student learning for students ready for that challenge;
Expanded availability of Advanced Placement (AP) courses, Career and Technical Education (CTE), and theme-based programs;
Continued recruitment of highly-qualified and certified teachers to staff our classrooms;
Extended professional development opportunities for all teachers, with a focus on new strategies to help struggling students;
Strategies to increase daily attendance; and Expanded parental involvement programs
While some schools on the list have educational programs that have produced good results for many students, they have not improved achievement sufficiently for other students. In other cases, not enough students participated in state-required tests.
The State Education Department identifies the following five categories of SINI schools, according to the number of years that the school has not made AYP:
(A) Title I School in Need of Improvement – Year 1
(B) Title I School in Need of Improvement – Year 2
(C) Title I Corrective Action School – Year 1
(D) Title I Corrective Action School – Year 2 (Planning for Restructuring)
(E) Title I School in Restructuring
The NYC Department of Education is committed to improving student achievement in these schools, and every effort is being made to provide the highest quality instructional program to best meet the needs of every student. Through the Children First initiative, we are taking programs that have been successful in improving teaching and learning and are expanding them to every public school in New York City. Additional fiscal resources have been provided to SINI schools to support whole school improvement efforts and the implementation of targeted interventions to improve student achievement in identified areas.
We are confident that the proven, research-based interventions and exciting new programs that have been introduced citywide and at the school level will make this school year a successful experience for your child. There are many strategies citywide which may include:
A longer school day with an early morning start;
More classroom time devoted to English and math;
Focused academic interventions for struggling students, including specialized support for English language learners and students with disabilities;
Innovative programs to accelerate student learning for students ready for that challenge;
Expanded availability of Advanced Placement (AP) courses, Career and Technical Education (CTE), and theme-based programs;
Continued recruitment of highly-qualified and certified teachers to staff our classrooms;
Extended professional development opportunities for all teachers, with a focus on new strategies to help struggling students;
Strategies to increase daily attendance; and Expanded parental involvement programs
Setting Goals
After completing my quality review I realized that goal setting is an important entity in successful school. Therefore it is very important that educators know that a goal is a statement of a desired future an
organization wishes to achieve. It describes what the organization is trying accomplish. Goals may be (making broad statements of where the
organization wishes to be at some future point) or tactical (defining specific short-term results for units within the organization). Goals serve as an internal source of motivation and commitment and provide a
guide to action as well as a means of measuring performance (Barton, 2000). Defining organizational goals helps to conceptualize and articulate the future direction of the organization, thus allowing those
responsible for setting that direction to develop a common nderstanding of where the organization is heading. Goals provide a way of assuring that an organization will get where it wants to go.
Setting Goals
How goals are set is as important as the goal itself. Thus it is important that goals meet specific criteria that can be used to easily assess them. One way of doing this is to use the acronym “SMART” as a way of evaluating the goal. An internet search for “SMART” goals yielded some 6.7 million hits. One of those hits, Measure-X.com said that “the
origin of the acronym is lost, and the specific traits are not universally agreed upon, [but] SMART goals still provide a great framework to improve your goal setting and help you create more effective goals.” A
further search of the first forty websites found that most used the following words to define a “SMART” goal:
Developing SMART Goals for Your Organization 2
• Specific
• Measurable
• Attainable
• Relevant
• Time-bound
Specific
A goal is specific when it provides a description of what is to be accomplished. A specific goal is a focused goal. It will state exactly what the organization intends to accomplish. While the description needs to be specific and focused, it also needs to be easily understood by those involved in its achievement. It should be written so that it can be easily and clearly communicated. A specific goal will make it easier for those writing objectives and action plans to address the following questions:
• Who is to be involved?
• What is to be accomplished?
• Where is it to be done?
• When is it to be done?
Measurable
A goal is measurable if it is quantifiable.
Measurement is accomplished by first obtaining or establishing base-line data. It will also have a target toward which progress can be measured, as well as benchmarks to measure progress along the way. A
measurable goal will answer questions such as:
• How much?
• How many?
• How will you know when it is accomplished?
Attainable
There should be a realistic chance that a goal can be accomplished. This does not mean or imply that goals should be easy. On the contrary, a goal should be challenging. It should be set by or in concert with
the person responsible for its achievement. The organization's leadership, and where appropriate its stakeholders, should agree that the goal is important and that appropriate time and resources will be
focused on its accomplishment. An attainable goal should also allow for flexibility. A goal that can no longer be achieved should be altered or abandoned.
Relevant
Goals should be appropriate to and consistent with the mission and vision of the organization. Each goal adopted by the organization should be one that moves the organization toward the achievement of its
vision. Relevant goals will not conflict with other organizational goals. As noted earlier, goals are set by or in concert with the person responsible for achievement. It is important that all short-term goals be relevant (e.g., consistent) with the longer-term and broader goals of the organization.
Time-bound
Finally a goal must be bound by time. That is, it
must have a starting and ending point. It should also
have some intermediate points at which progress can
be assessed. Limiting the time in which a goal must
be accomplished helps to focus effort toward its
achievement.
References
Barton, R.B. 2000. Chapter 7, Organizational
Goal Setting and Planning. Murray State University,
Murray, KY.
http://campus.murraystate.edu/academic/faculty/
rb.barton/40mgmt07.ppt#256,1,chapter7.
Davis, Jeffery H. N/D. Chapter 1, Managing and
Achieving Organization Goals. American
Management Association, New York, NY.
http://www.flexstudy.com/catalog/
index.cfm?location=sch&coursenum=95086.
Measure-X. S.M.A.R.T. Goals. N.D. E-mail
Newsletter #27, Phoenix, AZ.
http://www.measure-x.com/newsletter/27.html.
organization wishes to achieve. It describes what the organization is trying accomplish. Goals may be (making broad statements of where the
organization wishes to be at some future point) or tactical (defining specific short-term results for units within the organization). Goals serve as an internal source of motivation and commitment and provide a
guide to action as well as a means of measuring performance (Barton, 2000). Defining organizational goals helps to conceptualize and articulate the future direction of the organization, thus allowing those
responsible for setting that direction to develop a common nderstanding of where the organization is heading. Goals provide a way of assuring that an organization will get where it wants to go.
Setting Goals
How goals are set is as important as the goal itself. Thus it is important that goals meet specific criteria that can be used to easily assess them. One way of doing this is to use the acronym “SMART” as a way of evaluating the goal. An internet search for “SMART” goals yielded some 6.7 million hits. One of those hits, Measure-X.com said that “the
origin of the acronym is lost, and the specific traits are not universally agreed upon, [but] SMART goals still provide a great framework to improve your goal setting and help you create more effective goals.” A
further search of the first forty websites found that most used the following words to define a “SMART” goal:
Developing SMART Goals for Your Organization 2
• Specific
• Measurable
• Attainable
• Relevant
• Time-bound
Specific
A goal is specific when it provides a description of what is to be accomplished. A specific goal is a focused goal. It will state exactly what the organization intends to accomplish. While the description needs to be specific and focused, it also needs to be easily understood by those involved in its achievement. It should be written so that it can be easily and clearly communicated. A specific goal will make it easier for those writing objectives and action plans to address the following questions:
• Who is to be involved?
• What is to be accomplished?
• Where is it to be done?
• When is it to be done?
Measurable
A goal is measurable if it is quantifiable.
Measurement is accomplished by first obtaining or establishing base-line data. It will also have a target toward which progress can be measured, as well as benchmarks to measure progress along the way. A
measurable goal will answer questions such as:
• How much?
• How many?
• How will you know when it is accomplished?
Attainable
There should be a realistic chance that a goal can be accomplished. This does not mean or imply that goals should be easy. On the contrary, a goal should be challenging. It should be set by or in concert with
the person responsible for its achievement. The organization's leadership, and where appropriate its stakeholders, should agree that the goal is important and that appropriate time and resources will be
focused on its accomplishment. An attainable goal should also allow for flexibility. A goal that can no longer be achieved should be altered or abandoned.
Relevant
Goals should be appropriate to and consistent with the mission and vision of the organization. Each goal adopted by the organization should be one that moves the organization toward the achievement of its
vision. Relevant goals will not conflict with other organizational goals. As noted earlier, goals are set by or in concert with the person responsible for achievement. It is important that all short-term goals be relevant (e.g., consistent) with the longer-term and broader goals of the organization.
Time-bound
Finally a goal must be bound by time. That is, it
must have a starting and ending point. It should also
have some intermediate points at which progress can
be assessed. Limiting the time in which a goal must
be accomplished helps to focus effort toward its
achievement.
References
Barton, R.B. 2000. Chapter 7, Organizational
Goal Setting and Planning. Murray State University,
Murray, KY.
http://campus.murraystate.edu/academic/faculty/
rb.barton/40mgmt07.ppt#256,1,chapter7.
Davis, Jeffery H. N/D. Chapter 1, Managing and
Achieving Organization Goals. American
Management Association, New York, NY.
http://www.flexstudy.com/catalog/
index.cfm?location=sch&coursenum=95086.
Measure-X. S.M.A.R.T. Goals. N.D. E-mail
Newsletter #27, Phoenix, AZ.
http://www.measure-x.com/newsletter/27.html.
Cooperative Learning
I was reflecting on what goes on in the classroom on a daily basis and realized that teachers need to implement new strategies in teaching and focus on cooperative methods. Cooperative learning methods are defined by (Cohen, 1994, p.30) as students working together in a group small enough for everyone to be able to participate on a collective task that has been clearly assigned and students are expected to carry out their task without direct and immediate supervision by the teacher. Olsen and Kagan (1992) define cooperative learning as the following:
Cooperative learning is a group learning activity organized so that learning is dependent on the socially structured exchange of information between learner and in groups and in which each learner is held accountable for his own learning and is motivated to increase the learning of others.(p.8)
Science education, in particular, has traditionally used group work for practical activities and project-based learning. One of the recommendations for practice that has emerged from constructivist research is that small-group discussion should be used in science lessons as a means of helping students explore their ideas and move towards more scientific ideas and explanations. Impetus for the inclusion of small-group discussion in science lessons has come from the development of ideas about social constructivism (Driver et al., 1994, p. 1). These authors, for example, report a study of the social construction of knowledge with a group of 13 year olds, who were invited to develop a model to explain the properties of ice, water and steam following activities relating to change of state. The effect of the discussion in groups was a significant success. Students brought together their knowledge that particles are in constant motion, and that this motion increases with temperature. The idea of the force between particles being present all the time was used to explain the apparent “making and breaking” of bonds. It showed that pupils can bring ideas and past experience together to take their thinking ahead, if motivated and given the opportunity.
Barbosa (1996) found the following:
The influence of social interaction on the classroom learning of science, focusing specifically on the conservation of mass in chemical change. Her study involved 200 students aged 11-15 years. The results revealed that social groups outperformed the control groups, in relation to higher quality of understanding of the subject content. This suggests the potential for cooperative groups to promote learning of abstract content and that the very process of group work can deliver much more than the sum of the individual parts (p. 939)
Johnson & Johnson, (1985) found that “cooperative learning experiences promote higher achievement than do competitive and individualistic learning experiences” (p. 250). Simmoneaux (2001) believes that “collaborative classroom discourse encourages students’ participation in science” (p.903).
References
Cohen, E. G. (1994). Restructuring the classroom: conditions for productive small
groups. Review of Educational Research, 64(1), 1-35.
Johnson, D. W., & Johnson R. T. (1985). Classroom conflict: controversy versus debate in learning groups. American Educational Research, 22(2), 237-256.
Olsen, W. B.et. al. 1992. About cooperative learning. In Cooperative
language learning: A teacher’s resource book, ed. C. Kessler. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.:Prentice Hall. pp. 1-150
Simmoneaux, L. (2001). Role-play or debate to promote students at argumentation and
justification on an issue in animal trance Genesis. International Journal of Science Education,23(9), 903-928
Cooperative learning is a group learning activity organized so that learning is dependent on the socially structured exchange of information between learner and in groups and in which each learner is held accountable for his own learning and is motivated to increase the learning of others.(p.8)
Science education, in particular, has traditionally used group work for practical activities and project-based learning. One of the recommendations for practice that has emerged from constructivist research is that small-group discussion should be used in science lessons as a means of helping students explore their ideas and move towards more scientific ideas and explanations. Impetus for the inclusion of small-group discussion in science lessons has come from the development of ideas about social constructivism (Driver et al., 1994, p. 1). These authors, for example, report a study of the social construction of knowledge with a group of 13 year olds, who were invited to develop a model to explain the properties of ice, water and steam following activities relating to change of state. The effect of the discussion in groups was a significant success. Students brought together their knowledge that particles are in constant motion, and that this motion increases with temperature. The idea of the force between particles being present all the time was used to explain the apparent “making and breaking” of bonds. It showed that pupils can bring ideas and past experience together to take their thinking ahead, if motivated and given the opportunity.
Barbosa (1996) found the following:
The influence of social interaction on the classroom learning of science, focusing specifically on the conservation of mass in chemical change. Her study involved 200 students aged 11-15 years. The results revealed that social groups outperformed the control groups, in relation to higher quality of understanding of the subject content. This suggests the potential for cooperative groups to promote learning of abstract content and that the very process of group work can deliver much more than the sum of the individual parts (p. 939)
Johnson & Johnson, (1985) found that “cooperative learning experiences promote higher achievement than do competitive and individualistic learning experiences” (p. 250). Simmoneaux (2001) believes that “collaborative classroom discourse encourages students’ participation in science” (p.903).
References
Cohen, E. G. (1994). Restructuring the classroom: conditions for productive small
groups. Review of Educational Research, 64(1), 1-35.
Johnson, D. W., & Johnson R. T. (1985). Classroom conflict: controversy versus debate in learning groups. American Educational Research, 22(2), 237-256.
Olsen, W. B.et. al. 1992. About cooperative learning. In Cooperative
language learning: A teacher’s resource book, ed. C. Kessler. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.:Prentice Hall. pp. 1-150
Simmoneaux, L. (2001). Role-play or debate to promote students at argumentation and
justification on an issue in animal trance Genesis. International Journal of Science Education,23(9), 903-928
Thursday, July 19, 2007
Motivating our Teachers
In my setting, motivation is mainly extrinsic. Teachers are rewarded by providing less teaching time. Teachers are rewarded by promotion and teachers are also rewarded by providing breakfast or lunch. Staff members are also motivated by giving praise.
Understanding what motivated employees and how they were motivated was the focus of many researchers following the publication of the Hawthorne Study results (Terpstra, 1979). Five major approaches that have led to our understanding of motivation are Maslow's need-hierarchy theory, Herzberg's two- factor theory, Vroom's expectancy theory, Adams' equity theory, and Skinner's reinforcement theory. According to Maslow, employees have five levels of needs (Maslow, 1943): physiological, safety, social, ego, and self- actualizing. Maslow argued that lower level needs had to be satisfied before the next higher level need would motivate employees. Herzberg's work categorized motivation into two factors: motivators and hygienes (Herzberg, Mausner, & Snyderman, 1959). Motivator or intrinsic factors, such as achievement and recognition, produce job satisfaction. Hygiene or extrinsic factors, such as pay and job security, produce job dissatisfaction.
Many contemporary authors have also defined the concept of motivation. Motivation has been defined as: the psychological process that gives behavior purpose and direction (Kreitner, 1995); a predisposition to behave in a purposive manner to achieve specific, unmet needs (Buford, Bedeian, & Lindner, 1995); an internal drive to satisfy an unsatisfied need (Higgins, 1994); and the will to achieve (Bedeian, 1993). For this paper, motivation is operationally defined as the inner force that drives individuals to accomplish personal and organizational goals.
Why do we need motivated employees? The answer is survival (Smith, 1994). Motivated employees are needed in our rapidly changing workplaces. Motivated employees help organizations survive. Motivated employees are more productive. To be effective, supervisors need to understand what motivates employees within the context of the roles they perform. Of all the functions a supervisor performs, motivating employees is arguably the most complex. This is due, in part, to the fact that what motivates employees changes constantly (Bowen & Radhakrishna, 1991). For example, research suggests that as employees' income increases, money becomes less of a motivator (Kovach, 1987). Also, as employees get older, interesting work becomes more of a motivator. The ranked order of motivating factors based on research were: (a) interesting work, (b) good wages, (c) full appreciation of work done, (d) job security, (e) good working conditions, (f) promotions and growth in the organization, (g) feeling of being in on things, (h) personal loyalty to employees, (i) tactful discipline, and (j) sympathetic help with personal problems.
Understanding what motivated employees and how they were motivated was the focus of many researchers following the publication of the Hawthorne Study results (Terpstra, 1979). Five major approaches that have led to our understanding of motivation are Maslow's need-hierarchy theory, Herzberg's two- factor theory, Vroom's expectancy theory, Adams' equity theory, and Skinner's reinforcement theory. According to Maslow, employees have five levels of needs (Maslow, 1943): physiological, safety, social, ego, and self- actualizing. Maslow argued that lower level needs had to be satisfied before the next higher level need would motivate employees. Herzberg's work categorized motivation into two factors: motivators and hygienes (Herzberg, Mausner, & Snyderman, 1959). Motivator or intrinsic factors, such as achievement and recognition, produce job satisfaction. Hygiene or extrinsic factors, such as pay and job security, produce job dissatisfaction.
Many contemporary authors have also defined the concept of motivation. Motivation has been defined as: the psychological process that gives behavior purpose and direction (Kreitner, 1995); a predisposition to behave in a purposive manner to achieve specific, unmet needs (Buford, Bedeian, & Lindner, 1995); an internal drive to satisfy an unsatisfied need (Higgins, 1994); and the will to achieve (Bedeian, 1993). For this paper, motivation is operationally defined as the inner force that drives individuals to accomplish personal and organizational goals.
Why do we need motivated employees? The answer is survival (Smith, 1994). Motivated employees are needed in our rapidly changing workplaces. Motivated employees help organizations survive. Motivated employees are more productive. To be effective, supervisors need to understand what motivates employees within the context of the roles they perform. Of all the functions a supervisor performs, motivating employees is arguably the most complex. This is due, in part, to the fact that what motivates employees changes constantly (Bowen & Radhakrishna, 1991). For example, research suggests that as employees' income increases, money becomes less of a motivator (Kovach, 1987). Also, as employees get older, interesting work becomes more of a motivator. The ranked order of motivating factors based on research were: (a) interesting work, (b) good wages, (c) full appreciation of work done, (d) job security, (e) good working conditions, (f) promotions and growth in the organization, (g) feeling of being in on things, (h) personal loyalty to employees, (i) tactful discipline, and (j) sympathetic help with personal problems.
Monday, July 16, 2007
New School Phenomenon
As we think about the climate and culture of schools, we must confront the new reality that in the near future, hundreds of new schools will be designed, constructed, inspected, and approved to meet the needs of our nation's children. This reality poses both a challenge and an opportunity for educators at all levels who seek to improve the quality of schooling and ensure a learning culture that replaces failure and fear with achievement and security. Unfortunately, data and research on the new school phenomenon is scarce and, at best, falls short of meeting the growing needs of principals who will either open a new school or lose students to one. Available literature merely provides information on structural and technical topics that are related to new schools' development, such as lighting, the width of hallways, the size of the media center and cafeteria, colors, textiles, materials, play areas, and equipment. Although these topics are important, they are only fragments of a new school's development from conception to a community that is designed for the safe articulation and socialization of students; framed for academic activity and engagement; open and accessible, yet contrived for the protection of staff members and students; responsive to the characteristics and requirements of its learners; and architecturally pleasing, yet practical. The way those involved in developing the new school integrate all the pieces of a new school in terms of suitability, sustainability, and congruence determines to a significant degree how students will experience that school and with what results. Siegel and Byrne (1994) state, "The school which is quintessentially student focused, reflects the thoughtful considerations that were made by those who best know schools and the customers they serve." Specifically, the roles of the principal, community leaders, and district personnel must intersect and they must communicate regularly and be accountable for their decisions.
Reference
Reference
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